A cause for such a complex issue isn’t easy to pinpoint. It’s shaped by an interplay of social, situational, and individual factors. There are clear, research-based explanations for sexually intimidating behavior that relate to our broader societal context. Think of gender roles, media, upbringing, and peer pressure. Below, I’ll explain these causes in detail so that you can explain them too, perhaps at your next family gathering.
Gender roles
Many studies show that sexual harassment is tied to historical inequalities between men and women, which still influence today’s gender roles within our culture. Various sources describe sexual harassment as a mechanism through which men express their power and dominance over women. This display of dominance can be seen as a social performance of the traditional patriarchal system. The patriarchal system refers to a culture where there is a strict division between the roles of men and women, also known as gender roles. Our society still shows clear signs of this patriarchal structure. One key feature of it is gender stratification, meaning that there is still an imbalance of power between men and women in our social system, with men generally having a higher status. This structure contributes to the fact that women are primarily harassed by men. However, the roots of gender roles go even deeper. Research also shows that sexual harassment is used when a woman does not conform to the expected gender roles or sexual stereotypes within a culture. This was shown in research by Jennifer L. Berdahl.
Berdahl conducted three different studies; the first study (among male and female students) showed that women with relatively masculine traits (such as assertiveness, dominance, and independence) experienced the most sexual harassment. The second study supported this finding by demonstrating that the effect was not because these women rated potentially harassing scenarios more negatively.The third study (among male and female employees at five organizations) showed that women in male-dominated workplaces were harassed more than those in female-dominated ones. Again, women with more masculine traits experienced the most harassment in male-dominated organizations. This research shows that when gender roles are not adhered to, the male identity can feel threatened. This perceived threat may serve as an extra motivation for displaying harassing behavior towards women. Especially men who strongly support traditional gender roles and identify heavily with masculinity are more likely to engage in sexually intimidating behavior.
In street harassment incidents, women are objectified and belittled. The societal context, which links social status to gender, makes this possible. It motivates individuals to protect their status based on their gender. The normalization of sexual harassment within society causes men to view this behavior as normal, while women are more likely to blame themselves when they become victims. When the victim is blamed for the incident, this is called victim blaming.
Media
The persistence of this patriarchal system is supported by several factors. For one, many people are still unaware of this system. Furthermore, Gender roles are also normalized in the media. In music lyrics, pornography, and advertisements, women are still often depicted as sex objects.
In a study by Bakx, boys and young men themselves acknowledged that media can be a cause of sexually intimidating behavior. Other researchers have found that men are more likely to perceive harassment and aggression as normal when women are consistently portrayed through a sexualized lens in media.
However, negative portrayals of sexually harassing behavior in the media can also have the opposite effect: it can lead men to develop a more critical attitude toward harassment and eventually discourage them from engaging in such behavior themselves. Media, therefore, clearly has a macro-level influence, it can either reinforce the problem or, when used effectively, help reduce it.
Upbringing
Upbringing, peer influence, and situational factors also contribute to antisocial behavior. It’s important for a child to receive affection, appreciation, and engagement from their parents. This helps children develop stronger communication skills, fewer conflicts, and more positive peer interactions.
Sexual education from parents is also crucial. Sexual education isn’t just about the physical aspects of sex, but also about learning to respect others’ boundaries and desires. When young people receive limited sexual education, their understanding of sexual behavior is often shaped by what they learn from the streets, media, and peers.
Peer pressure
Peer influence becomes particularly strong around the age of 12, especially regarding topics related to sexuality. When a behavior is not accepted by society at large, but is accepted within a peer group, young people are more likely to adopt that behavior anyway.
Peer pressure is one of the elements within a dynamic group process that can lead to sexually intimidating behavior. It doesn’t always take the form of direct pressure; it can also occur when someone assumes what the group’s norms and values are and starts acting accordingly.
Sarah Bracke, professor of gender and sexuality at the University of Amsterdam, confirms that expressions of masculinity, such as in street harassment, occur more often in group settings than individually. This is related to a desire to gain status within male peer groups. They feel the need to prove their masculinity. According to Bracke, all of this stems from gender norms and includes phenomena such as ‘male entitlement’ and ‘heteronormativity’.
Have you experienced or witnessed street harassment? You can report it on our street harassment platform: www.intimideermijniet.nl. Thanks to this platform, we gain insight into what happens, where, by whom, when, and how street harassment occurs.