A cause for such a complex issue isn’t easy to pinpoint. It’s shaped by an interplay of social, situational, and individual factors. There are clear, research-based explanations for sexually intimidating behavior that relate to our broader societal context. Think of gender roles, media, upbringing, and peer pressure. Below, I’ll explain these causes in detail so that you can explain them too, perhaps at your next family gathering.

Gender roles

Many studies show that sexual harassment is tied to historical inequalities between men and women, which still influence today’s gender roles within our culture. Various sources describe sexual harassment as a mechanism through which men express their power and dominance over women. This display of dominance can be seen as a social performance of the traditional patriarchal system. The patriarchal system refers to a culture where there is a strict division between the roles of men and women, also known as gender roles. Our society still shows clear signs of this patriarchal structure. One key feature of it is gender stratification, meaning that there is still an imbalance of power between men and women in our social system, with men generally having a higher status. This structure contributes to the fact that women are primarily harassed by men. However, the roots of gender roles go even deeper. Research also shows that sexual harassment is used when a woman does not conform to the expected gender roles or sexual stereotypes within a culture. This was shown in research by Jennifer L. Berdahl.

Berdahl conducted three different studies; the first study (among male and female students) showed that women with relatively masculine traits (such as assertiveness, dominance, and independence) experienced the most sexual harassment. The second study supported this finding by demonstrating that the effect was not because these women rated potentially harassing scenarios more negatively.The third study (among male and female employees at five organizations) showed that women in male-dominated workplaces were harassed more than those in female-dominated ones. Again, women with more masculine traits experienced the most harassment in male-dominated organizations. This research shows that when gender roles are not adhered to, the male identity can feel threatened. This perceived threat may serve as an extra motivation for displaying harassing behavior towards women. Especially men who strongly support traditional gender roles and identify heavily with masculinity are more likely to engage in sexually intimidating behavior.

In street harassment incidents, women are objectified and belittled. The societal context, which links social status to gender, makes this possible. It motivates individuals to protect their status based on their gender. The normalization of sexual harassment within society causes men to view this behavior as normal, while women are more likely to blame themselves when they become victims. When the victim is blamed for the incident, this is called victim blaming.

Media

The persistence of this patriarchal system is supported by several factors. For one, many people are still unaware of this system. Furthermore, Gender roles are also normalized in the media. In music lyrics, pornography, and advertisements, women are still often depicted as sex objects.

In a study by Bakx, boys and young men themselves acknowledged that media can be a cause of sexually intimidating behavior. Other researchers have found that men are more likely to perceive harassment and aggression as normal when women are consistently portrayed through a sexualized lens in media.

However, negative portrayals of sexually harassing behavior in the media can also have the opposite effect: it can lead men to develop a more critical attitude toward harassment and eventually discourage them from engaging in such behavior themselves. Media, therefore, clearly has a macro-level influence, it can either reinforce the problem or, when used effectively, help reduce it.

Upbringing

Upbringing, peer influence, and situational factors also contribute to antisocial behavior. It’s important for a child to receive affection, appreciation, and engagement from their parents. This helps children develop stronger communication skills, fewer conflicts, and more positive peer interactions.
Sexual education from parents is also crucial. Sexual education isn’t just about the physical aspects of sex, but also about learning to respect others’ boundaries and desires. When young people receive limited sexual education, their understanding of sexual behavior is often shaped by what they learn from the streets, media, and peers.

Peer pressure

Peer influence becomes particularly strong around the age of 12, especially regarding topics related to sexuality. When a behavior is not accepted by society at large, but is accepted within a peer group, young people are more likely to adopt that behavior anyway.

Peer pressure is one of the elements within a dynamic group process that can lead to sexually intimidating behavior. It doesn’t always take the form of direct pressure; it can also occur when someone assumes what the group’s norms and values are and starts acting accordingly.

Sarah Bracke, professor of gender and sexuality at the University of Amsterdam, confirms that expressions of masculinity, such as in street harassment, occur more often in group settings than individually. This is related to a desire to gain status within male peer groups. They feel the need to prove their masculinity. According to Bracke, all of this stems from gender norms and includes phenomena such as ‘male entitlement’ and ‘heteronormativity’.

Have you experienced or witnessed street harassment? You can report it on our street harassment platform: www.intimideermijniet.nl. Thanks to this platform, we gain insight into what happens, where, by whom, when, and how street harassment occurs.

In 2022, 1 in 8 people aged 16 or older in the Netherlands reported experiencing sexually transgressive behavior in the past twelve months. Among young women, over half (52%) said they had been subjected to sexual harassment in the previous year. Sexual harassment is a widespread issue, one that has existed for as long as humans have walked the earth. But before we can solve it, we first need to understand the social systems that sustain it. Below are four key concepts that help uncover those systems, so that the next time Uncle Henk brings it up at the coffee table, you’ll have something meaningful to say.

#1: VICTIM BLAMING

Victim blaming occurs when the person who experienced harassment is told it’s their own fault. This happens frequently in nightlife settings, and the accusations come from all sides: bystanders, friends, even strangers. For example: “Why were you dressed like that? You were kind of asking for it.” These kinds of comments sustain the problem by shifting the responsibility away from the perpetrator and minimizing their actions. This creates a vicious cycle: the victim starts to internalize the blame, while the perpetrator feels emboldened to repeat the behavior, viewing it as normal.

Not only do bystanders and victims themselves often downplay the incident and shift the blame, perpetrators do this too. They justify their behavior by denying the harm or denying that there even was a victim. In criminology, these are recognized as two of the five “techniques of neutralization.” Denying the existence of a victim means putting the blame on the person who was harassed. This form of victim blaming is deeply rooted in social norms and gender roles. It often overlaps with slut shaming: criticizing women or girls for expressing their sexuality. Their behavior, attitude, or clothing is framed as provocative, supposedly inviting sexual attention. Some perpetrators even claim they were “being respectful” or that their actions would be appreciated by the woman. These justifications fall under denial of harm. By thinking this way, they erase the emotional and psychological impact their actions have on the person being harassed.

#2: MALE-ENTITLEMENT

Sexual harassment is closely tied to the performance of masculinity, especially in group settings. In such environments, men are often under pressure to prove themselves. These are power dynamics at work. A man might not consciously think, “I have the right to sexually harass someone,” but that belief can exist unconsciously. Male entitlement refers to the belief that men are inherently entitled to certain things like sex, simply because they are male. When they face rejection, it can provoke anger, because in their view, they were denied something they believed was theirs by default.

“I was walking through the park when a man yelled, ‘Hey girl, you look good!’ I replied, ‘That’s not necessary, thanks,’ and he screamed back, ‘You filthy whore.’”
— Report via www.intimideermijniet.nl | 21-04-2023

This privilege is fueled by the gender roles we present in society, in the media and in parenting. Men who are transitioning or in transition especially recognize this male privilege. They frequently talk about how, as women, they were taken less seriously and had to worry more about their safety. In the life of a (cisgender) man, these are, by and large, carefree topics.

#3: HETERONORMATIVITEIT

When we talk about heteronormativity, we’re referring to the social structures in which heterosexuality is seen as the standard, the norm. This doesn’t just concern heterosexual relationships, but the entire system that surrounds them. Traditional gender norms are rooted in a heterosexual worldview. The belief that there are two opposing genders, each with their own social role: man and woman. This framework stigmatizes people who don’t conform to those norms. There’s a direct connection between this and both sexual harassment and homophobia. Because the roots of violence against women and against LGBTQIA+ people are linked, it’s important that when speaking out against street harassment, we name and protect both groups.

“I dropped my girlfriend off at the hairdresser and gave her a kiss in the car. When she got out, a man walked by and shouted homophobic things at her, including that we rape children.” www.initmideermijniet.nl | 03-12-2023

#4: Intersectionality

Intersectionality is about intersectionality. A person has multiple aspects of identity on which that person is discriminated against or privileged. A person can be female and black. And lesbian. And a single mother. And also visually impaired. Got the picture? Then also add that she is rich, very rich. Suddenly the picture is different. Because someone who is wealthy occupies a completely different position in society than someone who is less wealthy, even if they otherwise lead exactly the same life. That, in a nutshell, is intersectionality. Complicated? Within the context of sexual harassment, for example, we see that bisexual women are most often harassed. Being female and bisexual creates the idea that these people are hypersexual and that this false idea is an invitation to sexual harassment.

For people who deal with discrimination and power imbalances in their everyday lives, intersectionality likely isn’t a difficult concept: they already experience it. It tends to be more complicated for those who occupy comfortable positions along these different axes. For them, the axes reinforce each other positively. You can think of it like the wind: you notice a headwind much more than a tailwind. In fact, when the wind is at your back, you might not even notice it’s there.

Have you experienced or witnessed street harassment? You can report it at our street harassment reporting center: www.intimideermijniet.nl. Thanks to this platform, we can collect insights on what’s happening, where, by whom, when, and how street harassment takes place.

Street harassment. It feels unsafe, uncomfortable, and often leaves you feeling powerless. What drives someone to do this? It’s tempting to think: “That person is just a jerk.” But street harassment is more than that. It’s the result of deeply rooted societal norms, power structures, and psychological processes. Time to uncover what’s underneath.

Street harassment as a tool of power

Street harassment is rarely about attraction. It’s about power, control, and dominance. It’s about claiming space, demanding attention, affirming one’s status or identity, often at someone else’s expense. In that moment, the perpetrator is saying: “You belong to me. I get to decide how you feel, move, or even look.”

That sounds intense, and it is. Because when someone harasses another person, they temporarily take away that person’s autonomy. And that’s exactly where the core of the problem lies: the imbalance of power.

Why do people harass others?
The motivation behind street harassment is complex, but there are four key societal and psychological factors that contribute:

1. Gender roles: Street harassment doesn’t come out of nowhere, it’s embedded in how we think about men, women, and power. Those who fall outside the traditional binary are harassed more frequently. Sexual harassment is essentially a way to display and enforce dominance.
2. Media: What we see in media influences what we consider normal. Women and LGBTQIA+ people are often portrayed as objects of desire, reinforcing the idea that this kind of behavior is acceptable. At the same time, media can also be a powerful tool for change when it presents different narratives.
3. Upbringing: A lack of sex education and attention to boundaries increases the likelihood of transgressive behavior. Without guidance, young people learn from the street, media, or peers what is (in)appropriate. Parents play an important role in teaching respect and reciprocity within relationships.
4. Peer pressure: In group settings, especially among young people, belonging is key. Street harassment can be seen as a way to gain status in certain groups. It becomes a means to prove one’s “manhood.” Herd behavior also plays a role.
   

What drives perpetrators and who are they really?

As explained above, street harassment is about power. People often ask for a perpetrator profile. What does this person look like? Are there certain characteristics that give us insight into who they are? Profiling is always dangerous, as it risks racism, discrimination, and ethnic profiling.
All research on street harassment essentially says one thing: there is no typical perpetrator profile. We cannot link this behavior to someone’s appearance. However, there is one factor that can predict whether harassment is more likely to occur in certain environments: the presence of a macho culture. A macho culture is an environment where masculinity—specifically traditional masculinity with an exaggerated or even aggressive expression—is highly valued. This culture can manifest in show-off behavior, a drive to dominate, a need to appear independent, or worse: treating women as if they were invisible.

Street harassment is a problem that occurs worldwide. Anyone can experience it. Unfortunately, women, girls, and members of the LGBTQIA+ community are regularly harassed in public. They are, for example, verbally abused, subjected to sexually explicit comments, or followed on the street.
Street harassment isn’t limited to the streets or to nightlife. It also happens in shopping centers, supermarkets, and other public spaces. You might be stared at during a walk in the park, or receive an inappropriate comment while cycling.

Forms of street harassment

Street harassment comes in different forms: non-verbal, verbal, and physical. Sometimes it starts small. Someone whistles as you walk by, hisses at you, or stares at your body for minutes as if you’re an object. Or you suddenly notice someone deliberately following you, on foot or driving slowly behind you in a car. This is non-verbal behavior that doesn’t need words to make you feel unsafe.

The second form is verbal: explicit comments about your body, sexual innuendos, or unsolicited questions like, “Can I have your number?”, “Are you going home, can I come with you?”, or if you’re queer: “Do you want a threesome?” If you don’t play along, the comments can suddenly turn into insults like: “Whore,” “Slut,” “Bitch.”

Finally, there is physical street harassment: a hand suddenly on your butt during a night out. Someone touching you without your consent or suddenly pushing you against a wall. Sometimes even someone trying to drag you into an alley. That’s not just intimidating, it comes dangerously close to assault.

What all these forms have in common is that they are not compliments. They’re meant to control, dominate, or make you feel like you don’t belong in public spaces. And that feeling that you have to be careful, that you have to think about your clothes or your route lingers and leaves its mark.

Who are the victims and perpetrators of street harassment?

Although anyone can experience it, it is primarily women, girls, and LGBTQIA+ individuals who are frequently targeted by street harassment. The reason these groups are targeted more often is not a coincidence. Street harassment is rooted in social power dynamics and gender norms. It’s a way of putting people who “deviate from the norm” in their place. For LGBTQIA+ people, it is often a punishment for breaking gender expectations or sexual norms, such as holding hands with your partner.

In theory, anyone can commit street harassment, but in practice, the perpetrators are almost always men. In fact, in 70% of cases, the harasser is a man (Plan International). This is related to deeply ingrained gender roles about how men are supposed to behave in society. In our society, power is still often exercised over women and queer people.

The media plays a role in this. Think, for example, of music, porn, or advertisements that portray women as sex objects. Peer pressure among boys also reinforces this behavior: in groups, some feel the need to prove their masculinity. If young people don’t receive proper sex education at home or school, they learn about boundaries mostly from each other or from the streets. This sustains a culture in which harassment is excused or even encouraged. Often, the impact of behavior isn’t considered.

Impact on daily life

Street harassment limits people’s freedom — literally. It affects where you walk, what time you go somewhere, what you wear, and who you walk with. Sometimes you avoid certain neighborhoods or public transport. In the worst case, you miss school, skip work, or quit sports.

According to Plan International (2023), 83% of Dutch girls between 16 and 27 years old have experienced street harassment. 63% of them say it affects their freedom of movement.

What’s often underestimated is the effect of repeated “small” incidents. Even without physical violence, street harassment leaves mental traces — such as hypervigilance, anxiety, or avoidance of public spaces.

This is known as “accumulative trauma” or chronic microtrauma. It’s a form of somatic trauma, where the body remains constantly “on” due to repeated stress stimuli. Your body remembers what happened, even if your mind tries to push it away (The Body Keeps the Score, Bessel Van Der Kolk).

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Street harassment is not an isolated incident, but a structural problem deeply rooted in our society. The numbers speak for themselves and show how widespread this issue is and how normalized this behavior has become.

A confronting image
Research by Plan International from 2023 reveals that no less than 83% of Dutch girls and young women aged 15 to 25have experienced unwanted sexual behavior in public spaces. For 63% of them, this has led to limiting their freedom of movement: they avoid public transport, sports clubs, or hobbies, and in extreme cases miss school or work. Additionally, the 2022 Prevalence Monitor on Domestic Violence and Sexual Transgressive Behavior shows that 17.8% of women and 7.5% of men have been victims of sexually transgressive behavior.

What makes this even more confronting is that sexual harassment often starts at a young age. Plan International’s (2023) research shows that girls and young women aged 12 to 27 are most likely to experience street harassment. Reports decrease after that age, not because the problem disappears, but because women develop strategies to avoid it more often, for example by spending less time in public spaces. The fact that harassment starts so early illustrates how deeply embedded and normalized sexually transgressive behavior is in our society. Girls have to start adapting in secondary school already: changing their clothes, avoiding certain routes, wearing earphones, staying alert. The public space is rarely neutral for them, let alone safe.

LGBTIQIA+ Community: hit twice as hard
LGBTIQIA+ people are often confronted with street harassment, especially when their sexual orientation or gender identity is visible. In Rotterdam, research showed that many LGBTIQIA+ individuals choose not to walk hand in hand or wear eye-catching clothing, out of fear of negative reactions such as verbal abuse, staring, or even physical violence. According to the 2023 Safety Monitor, 25% of LGBTIQIA+ individuals aged 15 and older were victims of ‘’traditional’’ crime, including violent offenses, within the past twelve months. Non-binary individuals are the most frequently targeted. The LGBTIQIA+ community is thus often doubly impacted when it comes to transgressive behavior.

The Role of Social Media in Street Harassment
Social media play a significant role in how young people perceive gender roles and sexual behavior. Platforms like Instagram, TikTok, and Snapchat are major sources of social pressure and sexist norms. Research by Plan International (2023) shows that 58% of young women aged 15 to 25 in the Netherlands experience online sexual harassment. This digital intimidation has offline consequences: young people internalize certain beliefs, which contributes to the normalization of sexually transgressive behavior in public. Influential figures like Andrew Tate reinforce this. His sexist statements contribute to a culture where women are seen as inferior and harassment is considered “normal” behavior. As a result, the boundaries between online and offline harassment are increasingly blurred.

What do these numbers tell us?
The figures show that street harassment is a widespread issue that deeply affects the daily lives of many. It limits victims’ freedom, safety, and self-expression, and contributes to a culture where intimidation is normalized. It is crucial that we take these statistics seriously and work together towards a society where everyone, including queer individuals and women, can feel free and safe in public spaces.

In this blog, we’ll discuss the three most important stakeholders when it comes to street harassment (victims, bystanders, and perpetrators) and offer concrete tools for what each group can do.

What can you do as a victim?

Despite all precautions—turning on “Find My Friends,” calling someone when you get home, holding your bike keys in your hand as a weapon—you can’t always prevent harassment. And that is never your fault. Still, many people feel powerless after an instance of harassment.

Did you know that many people freeze in uncomfortable or dangerous (sexual) situations? Research shows that up to 70% of victims freeze during sexual violence (Slachtofferhulp Nederland). Your body automatically enters the well-known “fight, flight, or freeze” response. You freeze, even if you don’t want to. Your body shifts into survival mode. And that is normal. That is not weakness. That is nature.

If you are able to act, here are some things you can do:

• Trust your instincts. If something doesn’t feel right, it probably isn’t. Take that feeling seriously.
• Avoid physical confrontation if that’s safer. Your safety comes first.
• Use your phone as a tool. Film or take photos if you can. Did you know you can set up an emergency call feature on your phone? It lets you silently call 112, trigger an alarm, or notify your emergency contacts automatically.
• Seek help. Call the police, the Center for Sexual Violence, or confide in someone you trust. You can also report it (anonymously) via intimideermijniet.nl. Don’t feel safe reaching out to the police or other organizations? We can help you with that.
• Why reporting matters? Not just for your own processing, but also to pinpoint unsafe areas. Your report contributes to creating a city where everyone can feel safe.

The role of bystanders

Bystanders can make or break a situation. And yet, we often do nothing. Out of fear, uncertainty, or because we think: “It’s not my business.” This is known as the bystander effect, a psychological phenomenon where people are less likely to help in emergency situations when others are present. People are then more likely to assume someone else will step in.

Two key factors are at play in this:

• Diffusion of responsibility: The perceived diffusion of responsibility means that the more bystanders are present, the less likely we are to feel a personal responsibility to take action.
• Social influence: This means that people look to others to decide how to act. This can cause a kind of collective “freeze mode.”

Your presence alone can make a huge difference. Want to be the perfect ally? Use the Bystander Intervention Model:

1. Recognize transgressive behavior: Learn the signs of sexual harassment. Stay present and alert. Just being there and showing that you see what’s happening can already scare off the harasser. Your presence can offer the victim a sense of support and safety.
2. Acknowledge the seriousness of the situation: Know that you’re more likely to underestimate the situation if others do nothing.
3. Feel responsible: Don’t let the presence of others stop you from taking action.
4. Know how to intervene: Ask, “Are you okay?” and watch for body language. A “yes” should be enthusiastic. Distract the harasser or make up an excuse: “Come with me, I need to show you something.” This removes the victim or the harasser from the situation.
5. Decide to act: Acknowledge your hesitation, and act anyway. Don’t feel safe? Ask help from a security guard, staff member, or another bystander. Give clear instructions: “Can you call the police?” or “Will you help me?”

Good news: You can practice this. Yes, really. The organization Fairspace offers training through “Join in with 5D”. This online tool teaches you five strategies—Direct, Distract, Delegate, Delay, and Document—for how to intervene during harassment. Because being an ally is like a muscle, you can train it.

What can you do as a perpetrator?

“I’m not a perpetrator.” That’s what almost everyone says. Yet research shows that many people who harass don’t see themselves as perpetrators. For instance, young men often say they stare at women without meaning to, and a quarter of them believe it’s acceptable to compliment women on their bodies in public (Plan International). Have you ever catcalled someone? Whistled? Stared too long? Commented on someone’s body in the street? Maybe you didn’t mean anything by it, but the other person felt unsafe.

It’s important to let go of the stereotype that street harassers are only “creepy men in alleyways.” Perpetrators can be friends, family, or even you. And that’s exactly why we need to change how we look at perpetration. That’s how we create real change. Not just through punishment, but through awareness, reflection, and taking responsibility for what we do and what we don’t do.

Ask yourself: “What’s my intention when I approach someone on the street?”, or, “Have I ever unintentionally made someone feel scared?”, or, “How do I react when someone calls me out on my behavior?”

What is consent?

All of this relates to consent. Consent is not a checkbox or an admin task you tick off and forget. Consent is a living, active, and continually ongoing process. A helpful way to remember what consent truly means is through the consent fries:

Freely given: Voluntarily agreed to.
Reversible: Can be withdrawn at any time.
Informed: Based on complete information.
Enthusiastic: Given with clear verbal and non-verbal enthusiasm.
Specific: Consent is specific to the situation. You can agree to have a casual chat on the street, but that doesn’t mean you want to give out your number.