A cause for such a complex issue isn’t easy to pinpoint. It’s shaped by an interplay of social, situational, and individual factors. There are clear, research-based explanations for sexually intimidating behavior that relate to our broader societal context. Think of gender roles, media, upbringing, and peer pressure. Below, I’ll explain these causes in detail so that you can explain them too, perhaps at your next family gathering.

Gender roles

Many studies show that sexual harassment is tied to historical inequalities between men and women, which still influence today’s gender roles within our culture. Various sources describe sexual harassment as a mechanism through which men express their power and dominance over women. This display of dominance can be seen as a social performance of the traditional patriarchal system. The patriarchal system refers to a culture where there is a strict division between the roles of men and women, also known as gender roles. Our society still shows clear signs of this patriarchal structure. One key feature of it is gender stratification, meaning that there is still an imbalance of power between men and women in our social system, with men generally having a higher status. This structure contributes to the fact that women are primarily harassed by men. However, the roots of gender roles go even deeper. Research also shows that sexual harassment is used when a woman does not conform to the expected gender roles or sexual stereotypes within a culture. This was shown in research by Jennifer L. Berdahl.

Berdahl conducted three different studies; the first study (among male and female students) showed that women with relatively masculine traits (such as assertiveness, dominance, and independence) experienced the most sexual harassment. The second study supported this finding by demonstrating that the effect was not because these women rated potentially harassing scenarios more negatively.The third study (among male and female employees at five organizations) showed that women in male-dominated workplaces were harassed more than those in female-dominated ones. Again, women with more masculine traits experienced the most harassment in male-dominated organizations. This research shows that when gender roles are not adhered to, the male identity can feel threatened. This perceived threat may serve as an extra motivation for displaying harassing behavior towards women. Especially men who strongly support traditional gender roles and identify heavily with masculinity are more likely to engage in sexually intimidating behavior.

In street harassment incidents, women are objectified and belittled. The societal context, which links social status to gender, makes this possible. It motivates individuals to protect their status based on their gender. The normalization of sexual harassment within society causes men to view this behavior as normal, while women are more likely to blame themselves when they become victims. When the victim is blamed for the incident, this is called victim blaming.

Media

The persistence of this patriarchal system is supported by several factors. For one, many people are still unaware of this system. Furthermore, Gender roles are also normalized in the media. In music lyrics, pornography, and advertisements, women are still often depicted as sex objects.

In a study by Bakx, boys and young men themselves acknowledged that media can be a cause of sexually intimidating behavior. Other researchers have found that men are more likely to perceive harassment and aggression as normal when women are consistently portrayed through a sexualized lens in media.

However, negative portrayals of sexually harassing behavior in the media can also have the opposite effect: it can lead men to develop a more critical attitude toward harassment and eventually discourage them from engaging in such behavior themselves. Media, therefore, clearly has a macro-level influence, it can either reinforce the problem or, when used effectively, help reduce it.

Upbringing

Upbringing, peer influence, and situational factors also contribute to antisocial behavior. It’s important for a child to receive affection, appreciation, and engagement from their parents. This helps children develop stronger communication skills, fewer conflicts, and more positive peer interactions.
Sexual education from parents is also crucial. Sexual education isn’t just about the physical aspects of sex, but also about learning to respect others’ boundaries and desires. When young people receive limited sexual education, their understanding of sexual behavior is often shaped by what they learn from the streets, media, and peers.

Peer pressure

Peer influence becomes particularly strong around the age of 12, especially regarding topics related to sexuality. When a behavior is not accepted by society at large, but is accepted within a peer group, young people are more likely to adopt that behavior anyway.

Peer pressure is one of the elements within a dynamic group process that can lead to sexually intimidating behavior. It doesn’t always take the form of direct pressure; it can also occur when someone assumes what the group’s norms and values are and starts acting accordingly.

Sarah Bracke, professor of gender and sexuality at the University of Amsterdam, confirms that expressions of masculinity, such as in street harassment, occur more often in group settings than individually. This is related to a desire to gain status within male peer groups. They feel the need to prove their masculinity. According to Bracke, all of this stems from gender norms and includes phenomena such as ‘male entitlement’ and ‘heteronormativity’.

Have you experienced or witnessed street harassment? You can report it on our street harassment platform: www.intimideermijniet.nl. Thanks to this platform, we gain insight into what happens, where, by whom, when, and how street harassment occurs.

In 2022, 1 in 8 people aged 16 or older in the Netherlands reported experiencing sexually transgressive behavior in the past twelve months. Among young women, over half (52%) said they had been subjected to sexual harassment in the previous year. Sexual harassment is a widespread issue, one that has existed for as long as humans have walked the earth. But before we can solve it, we first need to understand the social systems that sustain it. Below are four key concepts that help uncover those systems, so that the next time Uncle Henk brings it up at the coffee table, you’ll have something meaningful to say.

#1: VICTIM BLAMING

Victim blaming occurs when the person who experienced harassment is told it’s their own fault. This happens frequently in nightlife settings, and the accusations come from all sides: bystanders, friends, even strangers. For example: “Why were you dressed like that? You were kind of asking for it.” These kinds of comments sustain the problem by shifting the responsibility away from the perpetrator and minimizing their actions. This creates a vicious cycle: the victim starts to internalize the blame, while the perpetrator feels emboldened to repeat the behavior, viewing it as normal.

Not only do bystanders and victims themselves often downplay the incident and shift the blame, perpetrators do this too. They justify their behavior by denying the harm or denying that there even was a victim. In criminology, these are recognized as two of the five “techniques of neutralization.” Denying the existence of a victim means putting the blame on the person who was harassed. This form of victim blaming is deeply rooted in social norms and gender roles. It often overlaps with slut shaming: criticizing women or girls for expressing their sexuality. Their behavior, attitude, or clothing is framed as provocative, supposedly inviting sexual attention. Some perpetrators even claim they were “being respectful” or that their actions would be appreciated by the woman. These justifications fall under denial of harm. By thinking this way, they erase the emotional and psychological impact their actions have on the person being harassed.

#2: MALE-ENTITLEMENT

Sexual harassment is closely tied to the performance of masculinity, especially in group settings. In such environments, men are often under pressure to prove themselves. These are power dynamics at work. A man might not consciously think, “I have the right to sexually harass someone,” but that belief can exist unconsciously. Male entitlement refers to the belief that men are inherently entitled to certain things like sex, simply because they are male. When they face rejection, it can provoke anger, because in their view, they were denied something they believed was theirs by default.

“I was walking through the park when a man yelled, ‘Hey girl, you look good!’ I replied, ‘That’s not necessary, thanks,’ and he screamed back, ‘You filthy whore.’”
— Report via www.intimideermijniet.nl | 21-04-2023

This privilege is fueled by the gender roles we present in society, in the media and in parenting. Men who are transitioning or in transition especially recognize this male privilege. They frequently talk about how, as women, they were taken less seriously and had to worry more about their safety. In the life of a (cisgender) man, these are, by and large, carefree topics.

#3: HETERONORMATIVITEIT

When we talk about heteronormativity, we’re referring to the social structures in which heterosexuality is seen as the standard, the norm. This doesn’t just concern heterosexual relationships, but the entire system that surrounds them. Traditional gender norms are rooted in a heterosexual worldview. The belief that there are two opposing genders, each with their own social role: man and woman. This framework stigmatizes people who don’t conform to those norms. There’s a direct connection between this and both sexual harassment and homophobia. Because the roots of violence against women and against LGBTQIA+ people are linked, it’s important that when speaking out against street harassment, we name and protect both groups.

“I dropped my girlfriend off at the hairdresser and gave her a kiss in the car. When she got out, a man walked by and shouted homophobic things at her, including that we rape children.” www.initmideermijniet.nl | 03-12-2023

#4: Intersectionality

Intersectionality is about intersectionality. A person has multiple aspects of identity on which that person is discriminated against or privileged. A person can be female and black. And lesbian. And a single mother. And also visually impaired. Got the picture? Then also add that she is rich, very rich. Suddenly the picture is different. Because someone who is wealthy occupies a completely different position in society than someone who is less wealthy, even if they otherwise lead exactly the same life. That, in a nutshell, is intersectionality. Complicated? Within the context of sexual harassment, for example, we see that bisexual women are most often harassed. Being female and bisexual creates the idea that these people are hypersexual and that this false idea is an invitation to sexual harassment.

For people who deal with discrimination and power imbalances in their everyday lives, intersectionality likely isn’t a difficult concept: they already experience it. It tends to be more complicated for those who occupy comfortable positions along these different axes. For them, the axes reinforce each other positively. You can think of it like the wind: you notice a headwind much more than a tailwind. In fact, when the wind is at your back, you might not even notice it’s there.

Have you experienced or witnessed street harassment? You can report it at our street harassment reporting center: www.intimideermijniet.nl. Thanks to this platform, we can collect insights on what’s happening, where, by whom, when, and how street harassment takes place.

Street harassment. It feels unsafe, uncomfortable, and often leaves you feeling powerless. What drives someone to do this? It’s tempting to think: “That person is just a jerk.” But street harassment is more than that. It’s the result of deeply rooted societal norms, power structures, and psychological processes. Time to uncover what’s underneath.

Street harassment as a tool of power

Street harassment is rarely about attraction. It’s about power, control, and dominance. It’s about claiming space, demanding attention, affirming one’s status or identity, often at someone else’s expense. In that moment, the perpetrator is saying: “You belong to me. I get to decide how you feel, move, or even look.”

That sounds intense, and it is. Because when someone harasses another person, they temporarily take away that person’s autonomy. And that’s exactly where the core of the problem lies: the imbalance of power.

Why do people harass others?
The motivation behind street harassment is complex, but there are four key societal and psychological factors that contribute:

1. Gender roles: Street harassment doesn’t come out of nowhere, it’s embedded in how we think about men, women, and power. Those who fall outside the traditional binary are harassed more frequently. Sexual harassment is essentially a way to display and enforce dominance.
2. Media: What we see in media influences what we consider normal. Women and LGBTQIA+ people are often portrayed as objects of desire, reinforcing the idea that this kind of behavior is acceptable. At the same time, media can also be a powerful tool for change when it presents different narratives.
3. Upbringing: A lack of sex education and attention to boundaries increases the likelihood of transgressive behavior. Without guidance, young people learn from the street, media, or peers what is (in)appropriate. Parents play an important role in teaching respect and reciprocity within relationships.
4. Peer pressure: In group settings, especially among young people, belonging is key. Street harassment can be seen as a way to gain status in certain groups. It becomes a means to prove one’s “manhood.” Herd behavior also plays a role.
   

What drives perpetrators and who are they really?

As explained above, street harassment is about power. People often ask for a perpetrator profile. What does this person look like? Are there certain characteristics that give us insight into who they are? Profiling is always dangerous, as it risks racism, discrimination, and ethnic profiling.
All research on street harassment essentially says one thing: there is no typical perpetrator profile. We cannot link this behavior to someone’s appearance. However, there is one factor that can predict whether harassment is more likely to occur in certain environments: the presence of a macho culture. A macho culture is an environment where masculinity—specifically traditional masculinity with an exaggerated or even aggressive expression—is highly valued. This culture can manifest in show-off behavior, a drive to dominate, a need to appear independent, or worse: treating women as if they were invisible.